Steeple Analysis Of UK Supermarket

Steeple Analysis Of UK Supermarket The UK supermarket industry is the fastest growing sector of the UK economy that has made a great contribution to its economic development. Currently, the supermarket industry employs more than 1.1 million people and contributes more than 8% to the UK GDP (Euromonitor International, 2010). In every business environment, macro analysis is important to identify the factors that can hamper operations of organisations progress in the industry. STEEPLE (Social, Technological, Environmental, Economic, Political, Legal and Ethical) analysis is amongst the most effective tools that are used to monitor changes taking place in the environment of the business (Brown, 2007; Griffith Harmgart, 2008); the analysis is done to identify all important factors that can have a significant impact on any organisation operating in the UK supermarket industry. Li (2008) and Vasquez-Nicholson (2011) emphasized that Morrison PLC is a dominant brand in the UK supermarket industry as it derives its competitive edge by doing STEEPLE analysis frequently. It has successfully achieved its target market size by exploiting all strengths and availing opportunities present in its external environment. STEEPLE Analysis of UK Supermarket Every market is significantly impacted by both micro and macro environmental factors, but macro environmental factors have more influence on operational activities of a business (Jarett, 2012). Each factor of STEEPLE analysis with its relation to the UK supermarket industry is discussed below: Social Analysis The current trends of consumers in the UK market depict that they are moving from one stop shopping to a bulk buying mode as there are various social changes happening in the country. Supermarkets have availability of various non-food items which are usually on sale in the market. There have been demographic changes because there is an increase in old people, the number of female workers is increasing, and there is a significant reduction in homemade meals (Davis and Relly, 2009). There is more emphasis on the private label share of every business mix, efficiency in supply chain, and improvements in operational activities so that the overall cost of business is reduced. Most of the retail giants in UK are now shifting to local suppliers for their purchases and stock requirements (Vasquez-Nicholson, 2011; Waterman, 2007). In addition, consumers demand of products and services has changed because of their social conditioning along with their beliefs and attitudes (Lyan, 2007). Technological Analysis Technological developments have enhanced the service level of supermarkets in UK as they have benefitted both consumers and companies. With the help of technological gadgets, products are available quickly, personalized services are offered to customers and shopping has become convenient (Akter, 2012). The major systems that have enhanced UK supermarkets functioning are Electronic Point of Sale, Efficient Consumer Response, Electronic scanners and Electronic Funds Transfer System; these systems have assisted in efficient distribution and merchandizing activities so that requirements of each company are effectively communicated on time to the supplier (Grugulis, Bozkurt and Clegg, 2010). Environmental Analysis All organisations have to show that they engage in environment friendly activities; there is increased pressure on various managers and companies for acknowledging their social responsibility and they are required to behave in a beneficial way for the society (Smith, 2004). In the UK supermarket industry, the main issue at hand is that food retailers have to demonstrate that they conduct their operations in ways that are beneficial for the society as a whole and that is why every leading supermarket has taken initiatives to show their Corporate Social Responsibility promise. Even the UK government has launched a strategy for consumption in a sustainable manner and made mandatory changes in production methods to cut down waste, reduce resource consumption that produces harmful gases or particles which can cause pollution, and minimize damage to the environment (Trail, 2006). Economic Analysis The main factors to be studied in economic analysis are demands, costs, prices, profits, inflation, unemployment, interest rates and fluctuation in exchange rates along with various micro economic factors such as labour availability, product market, competitive structure and nature of competition. Considering the UK economys performance in 2012, its GDP growth rate is 1%, CPI rate is 2.2 %, unemployment rate is 7.9% and the current balance of payments is account deficit of GBP 2.8 billion (Trading Economics, 2012). Micro Economic Analysis Since international businesses of these supermarkets are growing, they are likely to get affected by reduction in the demand of UK food market and there is an increased exposure to risk of market concentration. There is immense pressure on existing companies to make sure that every factor is well studied so that all resources are effectively utilized. The Product Market All supermarkets have been developed with providing one stop buying facility and they have provided a wide range of options to the customers. Nowadays, people are looking for healthy and nutritious food so that they remain fit and healthy; the demand of organic foods has increased and customers are looking for easy access to these food items. The supermarkets are now placing these food items in their outlets to respond to their customer demands. The Labour Market As the number of supermarkets is increasing in UK, there is a huge requirement for workforce that can provide services to customers with perfection. Since skills required for performing necessary tasks are of a lower level, people with minimum education can easily find a job in this market. The labour availability is high as people have many jobs available in this field. Also, the demand of products is increasing, so supermarkets have added huge variations in each category. Competitive Structure In UK, the supermarket industry is believed to be an oligopoly market, which is highly competitive; there are four main firms in this industry, i.e. Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury and Morrison, which have more than 75% of the overall market share (Jarett, 2012). The pricing is almost the same, so customers are able to buy the products they need within their affordable range. Nature of Competition The nature of competition is getting intensified: the number of competitors is increasing because other companies are entering this field, such as Waitrose, Marks Spencer and many more (Seely, 2012). Political and Legal Analysis The political parties in UK are taking aggressive steps to protect the small shops and stores in the country so that their business does not close down; they have imposed many restrictions on the supermarkets so that a fair and competitive environment is created in the grocery industry. The Office of Fair Trading and the Competition Commission are the two main bodies that ensure that supermarkets do not create monopoly and offer fair prices to the customers. Recently, the government has relaxed UK Sunday Trading Laws for benefits of the employees and introduced a new style of food labelling so that shoppers in the supermarket can make healthy choices. Since obesity is the primary issue in the UK population, there is a growing trend of organic and healthy food and various initiatives are being taken by the government to create awareness of eating healthy and nutritious food. The government has also passed the laws for reducing the usage of single carrier plastic bags so that the environment is protected from any kind of pollution. Ethic Analysis In the UK supermarket industry, each company has to ensure that its business operations are conducted in accordance with the ethical standards. The sector is assumed by law to be observing ethical behaviour and conduct business practices in accordance with corporate governance. Every organisation has to ensure that it conducts its practices with integrity, transparency, accountability and honesty (Nicholls and Opal, 2005). Linkage of STEEPLE Analysis with Morrison PLC STEEPLE analysis plays an important role in identifying all important factors that are impacting Morrison PLC, but the most important factors are social, economic and legal ones. The social factors are of utmost importance because every company exists to serve its customers; it is important to understand their changing trends so that products and services are modified accordingly. Likewise, analysis of economic factors gives an idea of economic condition along with spending power of customers; with the help of these factors, it can decide on its operational activities and further expansion plans. Since legislation is a mandatory part of every business environment, Morrison will have to ensure that it follows all rules and regulations to ensure compliance with the legislative framework; in case any rule is broken, a heavy penalty will be charged, which can be costly for the company. Hence, these three factors are the most important areas of concern for Morrison PLC. Importance of Human Resource Management in Supermarkets HRM is an integral part of every business organisation, and it is important for them to have a highly skilled and motivated workforce that will assist them in achieving their desired goals and move successfully ahead in the industry (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2008). Following are the two examples of importance of HRM in the UK supermarket industry: Tesco Tesco is among the largest supermarkets of UK that employs more than 326,000 people and has been earning a consistent stream of revenue in the last couple of years (Euromonitor International, 2010). The company has done a competitive analysis to improve the ways in which interaction is done with customers. In order to enhance its position in the supermarket industry of UK, it has used concepts of welfare management, continuous improvement and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) along with well designed HRM strategies. The employees are treated as champions and are even rewarded for their extraordinary achievements; they are involved in decision making process as well. All of these interactive initiatives enhanced employees satisfaction level, motivation and productivity along with acceptance to change and have high morale for work. In order to ensure that Tesco provides a favourable working environment to its employees, it has properly implemented all important laws that will ensure employees are given their rights. For instance, they are given competent compensation packages, working environment is conducive, preventive measures are taken to provide healthy and a safe environment, and equal job opportunities and various other benefits are given (Freeman, 2009). In order to ensure that everyone is given the best employment opportunities, it is important for Tesco to conduct market analysis on an ongoing basis. It seeks help from marketing agencies that evaluate environment and ensure that they design competent compensation packages. By focusing on efficient development of its workforce, Tesco has been able to gain a competitive edge in the market. The satisfaction surveys of employees have shown that they are satisfied with their working environment and they will remain loyal to the company forever. With the help of a participative management culture, Tesco has been able to identify its weak areas and has successfully made the required changes so that overall performance of the company improves (Grugulis, Bozkurt and Clegg, 2010). Sainsburys When Sainsburys noticed that its sales were declining and it was unable to achieve its target market share, it decided to do its competitive analysis, which meant doing both internal and external analysis. The main problem highlighted in the analysis was that it lacked a competent and loyal workforce and there was misalignment between the organisation strategy and the companys overall strategy. There was a lot of miscommunication in the organisation as employees had lack of clarity about their jobs and how they were supposed to make contribution in the company. Overall, its HR department was not functioning smoothly as the right workforce was not employed at that time (Fox and Vorley 2004; Li, 2008). The foremost thing that was required was to change the culture of the organisation and it was made possible by receiving top management support. The code of conduct along with HR policies and regulations were distributed to employees so that they were aware of new rules and regulations that they had to abide by; job descriptions were changed to match demands of every position. Sainsburys even did a market survey to identify HR structures of its competitors and also compensation packages that should be offered to employees. After planning of HRM, it was implemented properly and monitored at small intervals to check its progress; six months later, Sainsburys observed an upward trend in its sales figures, along with an improved satisfaction level of employees. The company made changes in its recruitment and selection, training and developments, compensation and benefits and performance appraisal processes so that everything in HRM was well-integrated. Conclusion In order to be competitive in todays supermarket industry, companies have to make sure that they do analysis of their internal and external environments on an ongoing basis so that they have the latest information about things that are happening in their surroundings. Although STEEPLE analysis is important for identifying the factors which have a tendency of influencing the working environment of supermarkets, equally important are their workforces as they are the ones who are in direct interaction with customers. The main factor affecting the supermarket industry of UK is the workforce as it is important for the supermarkets to employ people who are well-skilled and efficient in helping the companies in achieving their corporate objectives. Since the number of employees in this sector is increasing, there are more chances that the employment level increases and spending power of people is enhanced. Another important factor that needs to be addressed is the growing concern for a healthy lifestyle and food; the consumers are now shifting to organic food. Therefore, the supermarkets have to ensure that they have a specific range of products that are demanded by customers, so that they can ensure that they maintain their position in the market.

Apple Swot Analysis – 2

Apple SWOT Analysis II Cesar Diaz MGT/521 Management October 31, 2011 Erick Espinosa Abstract Apple is a company that concerned of the environment and has been working for more than 20 years to minimize the impact their products have on the environment. Apple has developed and formulate an environmental policy in 1990 and since then, Apple has continue making their products more energy efficient, eliminating toxic substances. Apple is also the only organization that all the products they sell not only meets but exceeds the firm energy guidelines of the ENERGY STAR specification. In 2009 become the first company to report their total carbon footprint giving the opportunity to their clients to see Apple progress and efforts. Studying the financial statements of Apple investors and also costumers can determinate the health of the company, with the statements investors can decide if is a good investment risk by studying them in depth because the financial statements inform all of the business assets and liabilities and also include information about how much shareholders would receive as dividends from each share of stock. Companies calculate the earnings per share by dividing their net income by the total number of outstanding stock. Apple SWOT Analysis The environment of Apple is unique in this type of industry, because they focus on all the steps that their products pass through, Apple calculate their carbon footprint establishing the impact the company has in the planet. The footprint of Apple is divide in 46% on Manufacturing, a 6% on Transportation, a 45% on Product use, 1% of Recycling and the last 2% in Facilities The vast majority of our carbon emissions come from the manufacturing, transportation, use, and recycling of our products. The rest — 2 percent — come from our facilities. The way Apple minimize the impact of their growth is designing the products using less material, ship with smaller packaging and been as energy efficient and recyclable as Apple possible can. Apple remains committed to creating products that have the least amount of impact on the environment. Since 2008, as our revenue grew 74 percent, our greenhouse gas emissions grew only 57 percent. In other words following Energy Star qualification all products of Apple go beyond the USA Environmental Protection Agency`s strict ENERGY STAR guidelines for efficiency and has become the only company that can make that claim. In the past few years has made notable reduction in carbon Emissions (http://images. apple. com/environment/ images/manufacturing_ emissions_20110909. jpg) also the CO 2 Emissions per hour of products have considerable reduce (http://images. apple. com/environment/images/product_graph_20110909. pg) Apple continues to install state-of-the-art digital controls, high-efficiency mechanical equipment, and monitoring technology and Apple have a commitment to recycle, that also have Recycling Program and with this increasing their goal all year. The goal for 2010-2015 is a 70% of weight Recycled per year. (http://images. appleinsider. com/apple-e-waste-perc-070502. gif) Apple Inc. is an American based multinational company whose stocks are listed in the  New York S tock  Exchange and NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations) under the symbol AAPL. The company specializes in the design, development and manufacturing of electronic equipments like computers, software and smart  phones. The hardware related product line of the company is well known to everyone; including iphone, Macintosh and ipad and ipod respectively. While there are multiple range of software`s offered by the company to its customers that ranges from operating system to the entertainment and educational based software suits. There are several statements that can be analyzed to establish the health of Apple each one with different meaning and purpose. The income statement is for measures a company's financial performance over a specific accounting period. This is one of the three major financial statements; it also  shows the net profit or loss incurred over a specific accounting period, typically over a fiscal quarter or year. The income statement of Apple is In the last quarter the Revenue (in billion) of three of Apple products Ipod, Mac and iPhone) is of 28. 23 and the cost of Revenue is 16. 89. The gross profit is 11. 38, which leave us between the selling, administration and expenses, also the department of research and development a total operating expense 19. 56. so after taxes the income available Is 6. 62 with this information investor can identify how Apple has been growing despite the death of their executive chief. The balance sheet will give the summarize of a company's assets, liabilities and  shareholders' equity  at a specific point in  time. Knowing what Apple owns and what owes and also the amount invested by the shareholders. Seen the graphic, it’s enough to appreciate that Apple does not owes nothing and the assets are increasing more each quarter Cash ; Equivalents 9,815. 00 Short Term Investments 16,137. 00 Cash and Short Term Investments 25,952. 00 Total Receivables, Net 11,717. 00 Total Current Assets 44,988. 00 Long Term Investments 55,618. 00 Total Assets 116,371. 00 Total Liabilities 39,756. 00 Total Equity 76,615. 00 Total Liabilities ; Shareholders' Equity 116,371. 00 Total Common Shares Outstanding 929. 28 And the last statement to study is cash flow, this is a A revenue or expense stream that changes a cash account  over a given period. Cash inflows usually  arise from one of three activities – financing, operations or investing – although this also occurs as a result of donations or gifts in the case of personal finance. Cash outflows result from expenses or  investments. This holds true for both business and personal finance. This statement provides aggregate data regarding all  cash inflows a company receives from both its ongoing operations and external investment sources, as well as  all cash outflows that pay for business activities and investments during a  given quarter. As we can see in the graphic and confirm with the numbers Apple has increase their operating activities but the investing are dropping fast enough to realize that even is a good market rentable their stock are not valuable right now, we can say that one of the reason that their value have decrease in stock is because of the death of Steve Jobs. After reviewing each statement I can understand that the company is financial speaking, healthy because it have values that makes the company special, such as the quality in their products and cares about the planet, also the revenue are increasing and is a solid business because is always improving for increase the profit and reduce the cost. That concern to me because as an young entrepreneur learn to measure an investment`s risk. Management use this information to see the weak points have to strengthen and how is the company doing, is the duty of the manager make the revenue of the company always increase and find a way to reduce the cost. The stocks of Apple have a value of 404. 78 and a valuation change of -0. 04% Apple has 929. 28M of Shares and 70% of the installations Apple is the owner, comparing Apple with other companies is simple to appreciate that (see table) Apple is the most stable for investment and with more market capital to invest, also is the most active in dollar volume improving in technology and research, certificating the quality of Apple products. Key stats and ratios | Q3 (Sep '11) | 2011 | Net profit margin | 23. 43% | 23. 95% | Operating margin | 30. 81% | 31. 22% | EBITD margin | – | 32. 87% | Return on average assets | 23. 81% | 27. 06% | Return on average equity | 36. 40% | 41. 67% | Employees | 46,600 | – | Carbon Disclosure Rating | – | 80/100| In terms of technology advancement Apple is pioneer because have the brains of Steve Jobs, Jonathan Ives and other top visionaries at the company But it would be a mistake to think that only these few drive all of Apple’s vision and long term strategy. Indeed, as I understand it, the visionary conclusions they come to that drive Apple is quite a collaborative effort. A good example of technology advancement is the iPhone, that product began when some engineers showed Steve Job’s a larger touch screen version of an iPod they created in 2004, It took three years to pull off but in 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone and its apps eco system and as you know, this changed the course of smart phone history. Since then, every handset maker and PC vendors has been playing catch up with Apple. It has taken at least two years for the competition to pull alongside Apple but with each new generation of the iPhone, Apple seems to raise the bar. The 4th generation of the iPhone introduced the retina screen and a front facing camera and who knows what will be in the next generation iPhone when it comes out this summer. What Apple does is use its cash hoard to pay for the construction cost (or a significant fraction of it) of the factory in exchange for exclusive rights to the output production of the factory for a set period of time (maybe 6 – 36 months), and then for a discounted rate afterwards. This yields two advantages: First Apple has access to new component technology months or years before its rivals. This allows it to release groundbreaking products that are actually impossible  to duplicate. And second Eventually its competitors catch up in component production technology, but by then Apple has their arrangement in place whereby it can source those parts at a lower cost due to the discounted rate they have negotiated. Once those technologies (or more accurately, their mass production techniques) become sufficiently commoditized, Apple is then able to compete effectively on cost and undercut rivals. It's a myth that Apple only makes premium products – it makes them all right, but that is because they are literally more advanced than anything else (i. e. the price premium is not just for design), and once the product line is no longer premium, they are produced  more cheaply  than competitor equivalents, yielding higher margins, more cash, which results in more ability to continue the cycle. There is one other strategic advantage that Apple has that does not make them happy and that is Apple’s $60 billion cash in the bank. Although there has been suggestion from stockholders that some of that be given back to shareholders, Jobs and team have argued that they need it for acquisitions and other competitive issues. Well, it turns out the competitive issue they are talking about is the ability to pre-buy components in large quantities and at big price breaks. One example was the $500 million purchase of flash memory Apple did three or four years ago that almost wiped out the entire supply of flash at the time and drove the price f flash for competitors up. Apple is currently working on the differentiation strategy by putting unique elements in the design and development of its products. The differentiation strategy is defined as a strategy that aims to develop the products and or services that have unique characteristics that are well liked by the customers and are valued by them. This strategy enhances the market position of the companies with respect to their counterparts (Porter, 1998). Moreover, the company strategies also involve the expansion of its distribution network  in order to improve its global reach by providing high quality products and services with after  sales services to their customers. Therefore, the company is positioned uniquely in the markets to offer superior and integrated digital technologies and productivity solutions. The company faces aggressive competition from the other market players. According to Hoover (2011) the top three competitors of Apple Inc. in United States are Fujitsu Technology Solutions (Holding) B. V. , International Business Machines Corporation and Media Net Digital, Inc. respectively. The needs of the markets it caters are highly competitive in nature due to the ever changing and advancing technological environment and the rapid introduction of new technology based products. The main competitors of the company are following cost leadership strategies by reducing the prices of their products or by maintaining low profit margins to maintain their market share. There are various forces that can impact the business and profitability of Apple. These factors may include the marketing mix  ± product, price, place, promotion strategies, product  performance, the quality and reliability of the product, innovative designs as well as the availability of up to date software services. Currently, the management of the company is focusing on the expansion of its business markets related to the smart phones and other media and communication devices. Therefore, it is expected that the competition in these markets will tend to increase for the company. Conclusion Apple competitors delight in going head-to-head with Apple in hardware, because they can compete with them at this level. But it’s the combinations of its hardware that’s created specifically to be a vehicle for its software and the software itself that really sets Apple apart. And, there is another element to Apple’s â€Å"blank screen† strategy that adds to its competitive advantage. It makes Apple driven content a cornerstone of its extended software offerings. Also the study result showed that the company is doing pretty well in the global markets due the integrated resources and operative capabilities that are outcome of globalization. Apple Inc. lags only in its outsourcing associations with the other company’s at different countries of the world. In order to improve the outsourcing practices ethically, Apple can strictly ask its outsourcing partners to comply with the ethical rules, and regulations. References Apple Finance (2011, October 18). Apple Financial Result [Audio podcast]. Conference Call. Retrieved from http://stream. qtv. apple. com/events/oct/earnings/earnings_11/earnings_ref. mov Apple Inc.. (October 21, 2011). Environmental Policy. Retrieved from http://www. apple. com/privacy/ Apple an the Enviroment. (2011, Summer). Environmental Progress. Retrieved from http://www. apple. com/environment/progress/ Bajarin, T. (2011, March 5). Apple`s Strategic Advantage. Retrieved from http://technologypundits. com/2011/03/apples-strategic-advantage/ Google Finace. (2011, Octuber 31). Apple Summary Statement. Retrieved from http://www. google. com/finance? q=NASDAQ:AAPL McHugh, N. W. (2010). Understanding business (9th ed. ). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin..

Psychology Learning Essay

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The following account should probably come under the heading â€Å"Strange but True.† It describes a psychologist’s use of self-administered punishment to change a socially unacceptable behavior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A person once knew a psychologist who, for reasons which will be discovered shortly, shall remain anonymous. For the sake of the study, this person is named Richard. Richard had a bad habit. He chewed his nails. Well, that’s not actually correct; he chewed his nails off and then spit them out, usually while he was lecturing. Once in a great while, this practice was called to his attention, and it always embarrassed him. He said that he wasn’t aware that he was doing it. It had become such an ingrained habit that he could chew off all ten nails, spit in all directions, and still be totally unconscious of what he was doing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Richard was a respected learning theorist, and he decided that if anyone could devise a behavior-modification technique to eliminate his habit, he would. The next day he arrived, all smiles, and said he had a request: If any of those around see him biting his nails, this should be brought to his attention. It wasn’t long that before someone said, â€Å"Uh, Richard, you’re doing it.† He stopped and looked at his nails and said, â€Å"So I am.† Then as everyone was watched, pulled up his shirtsleeve, grabbed hold of a heavy-duty rubber band that had wrapped around his wrist, stretched it out a distance of about ten inches, and let is go. There was a vicious snap. He yelled, cursed, and shook his hand. Everyone looked on amazement. Surely learning theorist were all a little insane. â€Å"Punishment,† he said. â€Å"Punishment is the answer!†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What happened to the people around Richard was interesting. Some took relish in pointing out that he was biting his snails, just to see him snap the huge rubber band around his wrist; others preferred to ignore his habit, because they couldn’t stand to see him in that much pain. Happily, after two days, Richard’s habit had been broken.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One person asked him how he thought his program worked. He said, â€Å"Well, if I unconsciously unlearn it. Whenever I was chewing my nails, I administered this punishment. Pretty soon my brain learned that nail chewing resulted in something very unpleasant.† He said that the last time he reached his hand up to his mouth (quite unconsciously), he got a terrible sinking feeling that something awful was about to happen. â€Å"It made me aware.† he said. â€Å"I looked at my hand and saw it was approaching my mouth. Somewhere deep in my brain the little gray cells were screaming, â€Å"Don’t do it!†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It was reported that some days later Richard was wearing rubber bands around his ankles, but nobody wanted want to ask why (Dworetzky, 1994). Discussion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Learning pervades people’s lives. It is involved not only in mastering a new skill or academic subject but also in emotional development, social interaction, and even personality development. People learn what they fear, what to love, how to be polite, hoe to be intimate, and so on. Given the pervasiveness of learning in lives of people, it is not surprising that there have been instances of it – how, for example, children to perceive the world around them, to identify with their own sex, and to control their behavior according to adult standards (Atkinson, 1993). However, there is a more systematic analysis of learning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from practice; behavior change that are due to maturation (rather than practice)or temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug-induced states) are not included. All cases of learning are not the same though.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychology is the study of behavior. Psychologists study learning because among most animals, especially humans, the vast majority of behavior is learned. Learning may also be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience (Dworetzky, 1988).   Experts, however, tell that when somebody says â€Å"relatively permanent change,† this excludes the effects of such factors as fatigue. Fatigue, which occurs because of experience, may change behavior, but only temporary, whereas learning implies a more lasting change.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Learning is defined by Craig et al., as a process through which one’s capacity or disposition is changed as a result of experience. Whitaker (1972) defines it also as the process by which behavior originates or is altered through experience, while Wittig (in Bernstein et al., 1991) and Hilgard (1975) view it as behavior that occurs as a result of experience.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Apparently while learning can be defined as a process and as a product, more definitions stress learning more as a process. This idea suggests that it is not the product but the process that is important since the products of learning both what one is capable of and what one is predisposed to. Changes resulting from development and experience are emphasized; changes resulting from maturation such as growing older, innate tendencies like reflexes and conditions caused by fatigue, drugs, and diseases are strictly not considered as learned behavior. Adaptive value of Learning (Classical Conditioning) ~Overeating: Taste-Aversion Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Taste-aversion learning involves associating particular sensory cues (smells, tastes, sounds or sights), with an unpleasant response, such as nausea or vomiting. Taste-aversion learning can also occur from overindulgence. For example, children report taste aversions to food after overeating and becoming sick. Similarly, the majority of college students’ report taste versions after drinking too much alcohol and getting sick. In these examples, taste aversions to food or drink developed after a single trial and lasted an average of four to five years (Logue et al., 1981). ~Conditioned Emotional Response: Why a certain Christmas song elicits pleasant childhood memories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the conditioned emotional response, one feels some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a painful or pleasant event.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For example, many couples have a special song that becomes emotionally associated with their relationship. When one in the absence of the other hears this song, it can elicit strong emotional and romantic feelings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In other cases, conditioned emotional responses may develop into irrational fears that are called phobias.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A phobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense and irrational fear that is out of all proportion to the danger elicited by the object or situation. In comparison, a fear is a realistic response to a threatening situation (Bernstein, 1991).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   About 73 percent of people with phobias were able to trace the start of their phobias to fearful, painful, or traumatic situations that involved classical conditioning (Atkinson et al., 1993 in Kleinknecht, 1994 and Kuch et al., 1994). For example, about 5 victims involved in moving car accidents had developed fears of sitting or riding in cars, and another third developed the corresponding phobias (Kuch et al., 1994). Just as classical conditioning can result in fears and phobias, however, it can also be used to reduce them. ~Prejudice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the mid-1940s, psychologist Kenneth Clark held a black doll and a white doll in his hands and asked the following questions of young white children living in the South:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Which doll looks like you?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Now tell me which doll is the good doll?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Which doll is the bad doll?† These children knew that the white doll looked like them. most children also indicated that the white doll was the â€Å"good doll† and the black doll was â€Å"dirty† or â€Å"ugly† ( Clark and Clark, 1947). How had these southern white children learned to make such association? During the decades of racial prejudices that had come before, darer skins had become associated with poverty and with being â€Å"inferior,† not just in the South, but generally throughout the United States. The white children had learned to attribute these characteristics to black people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The racist attitude is what the white children had been taught; it is also what the black children had been taught. The black had been raised in the same general environment, the same country. They, too, had seen that the whites had better and they had worse. And, as the Clarks discovered in further research, a majority of black children also chose the white doll as the good one and the black doll as the bad one.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A conditioning experiment conducted by researcher Staats (1958 in Atkinson et al., 1993) helped to show how association process could be responsible for the prejudice, Dr. Clark observed. In their experiment, college students were asked to look at one word while pronouncing another. Without being aware of the purpose of the experiment, the students were manoeuvred into pairing pleasant words or unpleasant words with a particular name (Tom or Bill) or a certain nationality (Swedish or Dutch). In short, subjects revealed obvious differences in attitudes towards these names and nationalities, simply because those words had been paired with positive or negative words. Advertisers, politicians, movie makers, and just about everyone else try to use this kind of conditioning to affect people’s emotions. Then a politician associates himself with a positive symbol such as the flag, or when a movie maker uses dramatic music, or when someone dresses well for a job interview, each is invoking the same process: Each is attempting to render something – the politician, the movie maker, or the job seeker – more appealing through association with positive stimuli.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What appears to be occurring in the instances of association, like those just described, is a kind of higher order conditioning (Dworetzky, 1998). Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In classical conditioning, the conditioned response often resembles the normal response to the unconditioned stimulus: salivation, for example,   is a dog’s normal response to food. But when you want to teach an organism something novel – such as teaching a dog new trick – you cannot use classical conditioning. What unconditioned stimulus would make a dog sit up or roll over? To train the dog, you must first persuade it to do the trick (Bernstein et al., 1991).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Much of the real-life behavior is like this: responses are learned because they operate on, or effect the environment. Referred to as an operant conditioning, this kind of learning occurs in human individuals, as well as in animals. Alone in a crib, a baby may kick and twist and coo spontaneously. When left by itself, a dog may pad back and forth, sniff, or perhaps pick up a ball, drop it, and play with it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Neither organism is responding to the onset or offset of a specific external stimulus. Rather, they are operating on their environment. Once the organism performs a certain behavior, however, the likelihood that the action will be repeated depends on its consequences. The baby will coo more often if each such occurrence is followed by parental attention, and the dog will pick up the ball more often if petting or a food reward follows this action. If we think of the baby as having a gaol of parental attention, and the dog as having the goal of food, then operant conditioning amounts to learning that a particular behavior leads to attaining a particular goal (Rescorla, 1987). Reference: Atkinson, R.L., R.C. Atkinson, E.E. Smith, D.J. Bem, and S.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993. Introduction to Psychology, 13th ed.    New York: Harcourt College Publishers. Bernstein, D.A., E.J. Roy, T.K. Srull, and C.D. Wickens, 1991.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychology. New Jersey: Houghton Mifflin Company. Bootzin, R.R. 1991. Psychology.   New York: Gilford Press. Clark, L., A.D. Watson, and S. Reynolds, 1995. Diagnosis and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   classification of psychopathology: Challenges to the current system and future directions. Annual review of   Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychology 46: 121-53. Dworetzky, J.P. 1988. Psychology.3rd Ed. Mew York: West   Ã‚  Ã‚   Publishing Company. Logue, A.W., I.Ophir, and K.E. Strauss. 1981. The Acquisition    of taste aversions in humans. Behavior Research and Therapy,19:3:19-35. Morgan, Clifford T. 1977. A Brief Introduction to Psychology.    2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Rescorla, R.A. 1987. A Pavlovian analysis of goal-directed   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   behavior. American Psychologist 42:119-129, 265.   

Cómo se apostilla un documento para darle validez en otro país

La apostilla de la Haya es un sello que acredita que un documento obtenido en un paà ­s es verdadero y, por lo tanto, debe ser reconocido y aceptado como và ¡lido en otro. El sello de la apostilla —o apostille— puede variar en diseà ±o, tamaà ±o o color entre paà ­ses. Lo fundamental para su validez es que sea colocado por una autoridad competente segà ºn las leyes que regulan este tema en cada uno de los paà ­ses firmantes de la Convencià ³n de la Haya o que adoptaron ese tratado posteriormente. Este artà ­culo informa sobre los puntos clave que deben saberse sobre la Apostilla de la Haya, quà © tipo de documentos se pueden apostillar y cuà ¡les son las autoridades competentes para apostillar en todos los paà ­ses de Latinoamà ©rica que forman parte de la Convencià ³n, asà ­ como en Estados Unidos y en Espaà ±a.  ¿Cuà ¡les documentos se pueden apostillar? Son susceptible de apostillar documentos de registro civil, por ejemplo, certificados de nacimiento, matrimonio, divorcio, defuncià ³n o solterà ­a. Tambià ©n aplica a documentos notariales, certificaciones de nivel de estudio, diplomas acadà ©micos y titulaciones universitarias. Asimismo, pueden apostillarse las certificaciones de los registros mercantiles, patentes, autos y sentencias judiciales, y cualquier otro documento emitido por una autoridad o funcionario pà ºblico. Por otro lado, no pueden apostillarse los documentos administrativos referentes a una actividad aduanera o mercantil, ni tampoco los expedidos por agentes consulares.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Argentina? La potestad de legalizar un documento mediante la apostilla de la Haya —conocida en Argentina como Apostille— corresponde al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y Culto. La documentacià ³n debe presentarse en Esmeralda 1214, C.A.B.A. C1007ABR. En el interior del paà ­s los colegios de escribanos està ¡n habilitados para colocar la apostilla. Si la documentacià ³n a legalizar ha sido emitida o certificada por una autoridad local, previamente a presentar los papeles deberà ¡ obtenerse una legalizacià ³n por el Ministerio del Interior, Obras Pà ºblicas y Vivienda, y deberà ¡ solicitarse el turno por Internet. Por otra parte, los tà ­tulos universitarios y las certificaciones de estudios secundarios y de estudios superiores no universitarios deberà ¡n contar con la cadena de legalizaciones previa exigida por el Ministerio de Educacià ³n o, en su caso, el Ministerio de Sanidad, dependiendo del tipo de estudios.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Bolivia? Desde 2018, se puede solicitar apostillar un documento en las oficinas del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores en La Paz, Cochabamba o Santa Cruz.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Chile? La autoridad competente para apostillar en Chile depende de la naturaleza del documento pà ºblico. Asà ­, para asuntos de justicia le corresponde a los secretarios regionales ministeriales, y en el caso de la regià ³n metropolitana, al Subsecretario de Justicia. Los documentos de educacià ³n deben presentarse ante las secretarà ­as regionales ministeriales. Los sanitarios, ante los secretarios regionales ministeriales, el Intendente de Prestadores de Salud o directores de servicios de salud. Los documentos de identificacià ³n o registro civil deben apostillarse con los directores regionales o el nacional. Los documentos emitidos por el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores deben ser apostillados por el Director General de Asuntos Exteriores e Inmigracià ³n. Si la persona que debe apostillar un documento se encuentra fuera de Chile, puede solicitar este servicio por Internet y retirar el documento apostillado en un consulado en el exterior.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Colombia? La tramitacià ³n de la apostilla se hace en là ­nea.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Costa Rica? La autoridad para apostillar corresponde al Departamento de Autenticaciones del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto. La solicitud de cita se realiza en là ­nea. Pueden presentarse un mà ¡ximo de 12 documentos por cita.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Ecuador? En Ecuador, varias oficinas repartidas por las nueve zonas del paà ­s està ¡n autorizadas para apostillar documentos pà ºblicos, previo pago de una tarifa de $20 que se reduce para mayores de 65 aà ±os y personas con discapacidad. Puede apostillar el titular del documento pà ºblico o una tercera persona.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en El Salvador? Corresponde apostillar al Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, el cual lo hace de forma gratuita. Previamente a presentar los documentos para apostillar es necesario obtener la certificacià ³n de autenticacià ³n de la firma del documento. El lugar donde se obtiene depende de la naturaleza de dicho documento. Por ejemplo, si se trata de partidas del estado civil, pueden hacerlo el alcalde municipal, el jefe del registro del estado familiar o el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores; si se trata de tà ­tulos universitarios, se encarga el Ministerio de Educacià ³n o el de Relaciones Exteriores.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Estados Unidos? En Estados Unidos, la competencia para legalizar un documento mediante la apostilla de la Haya corresponde a diversas autoridades dependiendo del tipo de documento. Asà ­, si se trata de un documento emitido por una agencia del gobierno federal, puede apostillar la Oficina de Autenticacià ³n del Departamento de Estado. Se puede contactar marcando al 1-202-647-5002 o por correo. El costo es de $8 por documento. Si se trata de apostillar un Reporte Consular de Nacimiento, el certificado de matrimonio o fallecimiento de un ciudadano estadounidense ocurrido fuera de Estados Unidos, o el certificado de nacimiento o fallecimiento emitido entre 1904 y 1979 por el Gobierno de la Zona del Canal de Panamà ¡, la competencia recae en el Bureau de Asuntos Consulares del Departamento de Estado. La solicitud de la apostilla debe estar notarizada y acompaà ±ada por una copia legible de una identificacià ³n emitida en los Estados Unidos como, por ejemplo, la licencia de manejar. Si se trata de documentos emitidos por un juez o una corte federal, como una sentencia o un auto, por ejemplo, pueden apostillarlos los secretarios o los asistentes de secretario de dichas cortes. Asimismo, en estos casos hay otra alternativa, la cual consiste en solicitar al Departamento de Justicia de Estados Unidos que autentifique el sello de una corte federal y, a continuacià ³n, solicitar la apostilla a la Oficina de Autenticacià ³n del Departamento de Estado. Sin embargo, en Estados Unidos, la mayorà ­a de las veces la autoridad competente para apostillar es el Secretario de Estado de cada uno de los estados, ya que ellos apostillan documentos emitidos por cortes locales y tambià ©n documentos de registro civil, como por ejemplo certificado de nacimiento, matrimonio, divorcio o fallecimiento, o incluso de un tà ­tulo acadà ©mico. En estos casos, antes de apostillar es necesario obtener el documento original o una copia oficial del mismo. En el caso de certificados de nacimiento o de estado civil, lo mà ¡s frecuente es que se deba contactar con la oficina del secretario del condado (county clerk, en inglà ©s) o de la municipalidad. Tambià ©n es posible obtenerlo a travà ©s de pà ¡ginas en Internet dedicadas a esta labor como, por ejemplo, vitalcheck. En ningà ºn caso, las embajadas o consulados de Estados Unidos pueden colocar el sello de la apostilla en un documento emitido por una autoridad de Estados Unidos.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Espaà ±a? Para apostillar documentos pà ºblicos administrativos o judiciales, incluidos los de registro civil, las autoridades competentes son las gerencias territoriales del Ministerio de Justicia, la Oficina Central de Atencià ³n al Ciudadano, el mismo ministerio y las secretarà ­as de gobierno de los Tribunales Superiores de Justicia autonà ³micos. Sin embargo, si los documentos judiciales han sido expedidos por el Tribunal Supremo o por la Audiencia Nacional, la autoridad competente son sus respectivos secretarios judiciales. Finalmente, si se trata de un documento privado o un documento notarial, tienen la competencia para apostillar los colegios notariales. En numerosos casos es posible que previamente a apostillar se requiera un reconocimiento de firma por parte de la autoridad competente, como es el caso de tà ­tulos universitarios, documentos expedidos por el Instituto de Seguridad Social, el Instituto Nacional de Empleo, la Agencia Tributaria, etc.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Guatemala? Corresponde la labor de apostillar al Departamento de Autà ©nticas de la Direccià ³n General de Asuntos Jurà ­dicos del Departamento de Relaciones Exteriores, ubicado en el Centro de Atencià ³n al Migrante (2a. Av. 4-17 zona 10), en Ciudad de Guatemala.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Honduras? Corresponde esta labor a la Seccià ³n de Autà ©ntica y Apostilla de la Secretarà ­a de Estado en el Despacho de Relaciones Exteriores, Municipio del Distrito Central. Para la solicitud se requiere presentar recibo bancario de pago de tarifa. La apostilla se demora un dà ­a.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Mà ©xico? Los documentos pà ºblicos estatales deben apostillarse con el gobierno del estado correspondiente. Son ejemplo de este tipo de documentos los emitidos por los oficiales del Registro Civil, los Jueces del Fuero Comà ºn, los presidentes municipales, los notarios pà ºblicos, la Procuradurà ­a y el Tribunal Superior de Justicia Estatal, etc. En el caso de documentos pà ºblicos federales, corresponde apostillar a la Secretarà ­a de Gobernacià ³n, Calle Rà ­o Amazonas # 62, Planta Baja,  Del. Cuauhtà ©moc, Col. Cuauhtà ©moc, C. P. 06500, Ciudad de Mà ©xico, Tel. (0155) 50-93-32-18 y 50-93-32-22. Las personas que viven en el interior de la repà ºblica pueden evitar tener que desplazarse al D.F. enviando la documentacià ³n por paqueterà ­a con guà ­a prepagada. Previamente, deberà ¡n certificarse la firma del documento, pagar en ventanilla bancaria la hoja de ayuda para el pago de derechos, presentar identificacià ³n oficial vigente con pasaporte, INE, cà ©dula profesional o cartilla militar y, en el caso de los mexicanos, el CURP (Clave à ºnica de registro de poblacià ³n).  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Nicaragua? La autoridad competente es la Direccià ³n General Consular de la Cancillerà ­a. El titular puede presentarse en persona en sus oficinas o enviar la documentacià ³n por courier, previa descarga del formulario en el que se realiza la peticià ³n de apostilla.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Panamà ¡? La labor de apostillar corresponde al Departamento de Autenticacià ³n y Legalizacià ³n del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, ubicado en Ave. Ricardo J. Alfaro, Centro Comercial Sun Towers Mall. Se puede contactar marcando al 511-4045 / 511-4046.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Perà º? En Perà º corresponde al Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores la labor de apostillar documentos pà ºblicos, y realiza esta labor en las Ventanillas de Trà ¡nsito y Atenciones Personalizadas. Cualquier consulta sobre la apostilla puede enviarse por correo electrà ³nico a: legalizacionesyapostillatrcrree.gob.pe  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Repà ºblica Dominicana? La persona interesada en apostillar un documento pà ºblico debe presentarse en el à ¡rea de Recepcià ³n y Entrega de Documentos de la Direccià ³n de Legalizacià ³n de Documentos dependiente del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. Previamente deberà ¡ haber pagado la tasa correspondiente en el Banco de Reservas y obtenido la certificacià ³n de firmas ante la autoridad competente que dependerà ¡ del tipo de documento. Asà ­, si se trata de actos de tipo civil, deberà ¡ obtenerse certificacià ³n previa por parte de la junta de distrito. En el caso de documentos jurà ­dicos o judiciales, està ¡ a cargo el Departamento de Legalizacià ³n de Firmas de la Procuradurà ­a General de la Repà ºblica; los documentos de estudios de primaria y secundaria son apostillados por el Ministerio de Estado de Educacià ³n; de los de estudios universitarios se encarga el Ministerio de Educacià ³n Superior; los documentos mercantiles y de empresas son apostillados por la Cà ¡mara de Comercio; los relacionados con la salud se apostillan por el Ministerio de Salud Pà ºblica; los militares, por el Ministerio de Defensa y Policà ­a Nacional; y, finalmente, los documentos concernientes a la religià ³n catà ³lica, son apostillados por el departamento de legalizaciones del arzobispado.  ¿Cà ³mo apostillar en Venezuela? Para apostillar es necesario registrarse en la pà ¡gina del Ministerio del Poder Popular para las Relaciones Exteriores y solicitar cita electrà ³nica. El dà ­a de la cita puede acudir el titular del documento, un familiar o su representante o apoderado. De interà ©s para quienes desean estudiar o trabajar en EE.UU. Entre los documentos que mà ¡s se apostillan està ¡n los relacionados con la educacià ³n. Es un paso comà ºn para los extranjeros que desean estudiar o desempeà ±ar trabajados que requieren ciertos estudios en Estados Unidos. La apostilla es diferente a la validacià ³n y homologacià ³n de los expedientes y tà ­tulos acadà ©micos. En Estados Unidos, la llevan a cabo empresas privadas expresamente reconocidas por la institucià ³n en la que se desea estudiar o trabajar, es decir, no sirve cualquiera y es necesario prestar atencià ³n a ese detalle. Puntos clave La apostilla permite que un documento expedido en un paà ­s sea aceptado en otro.Se apostilla en el paà ­s que ha emitido el documento.Cuba es el à ºnico paà ­s hispanoparlante en donde no aplica la Convencià ³n de la Haya.Embajadas y consulados no pueden apostillar.Dependiendo de los casos, es posible que sea imprescindible obtener un reconocimiento de firma antes de apostillar e, incluso, una traduccià ³n jurada que tambià ©n podrà ­a ser necesario apostillar. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal de ningà ºn tipo.